diff --git a/src/plyngent/agent/usage.py b/src/plyngent/agent/usage.py
index 0b8048f..ab9913b 100644
--- a/src/plyngent/agent/usage.py
+++ b/src/plyngent/agent/usage.py
@@ -1,34 +1,74 @@
 from __future__ import annotations
 
-from typing import cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, cast
 
 from msgspec import UNSET, Struct
 
+from plyngent.agent.budget import estimate_message_chars, estimate_messages_chars
+
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+    from collections.abc import Sequence
+
+    from plyngent.lmproto.openai_compatible.model import AnyChatMessage, AssistantChatMessage
+
+# Rough OpenAI-style heuristic: ~4 characters per token (not model-accurate).
+DEFAULT_CHARS_PER_TOKEN = 4.0
+
 
 class TokenUsage(Struct, omit_defaults=True):
-    """Token counts from a provider ``usage`` object (OpenAI-compatible)."""
+    """Token counts from API ``usage`` or a char-based estimate."""
 
     prompt_tokens: int = 0
     completion_tokens: int = 0
     total_tokens: int = 0
+    # "api" | "estimate" | "mixed" (session totals combining both)
+    source: str = "api"
 
     def add(self, other: TokenUsage) -> TokenUsage:
+        if self.is_zero():
+            return other
+        if other.is_zero():
+            return self
+        source = self.source if self.source == other.source else "mixed"
         return TokenUsage(
             prompt_tokens=self.prompt_tokens + other.prompt_tokens,
             completion_tokens=self.completion_tokens + other.completion_tokens,
             total_tokens=self.total_tokens + other.total_tokens,
+            source=source,
         )
 
     def is_zero(self) -> bool:
         return self.prompt_tokens == 0 and self.completion_tokens == 0 and self.total_tokens == 0
 
     def format_line(self) -> str:
+        tag = ""
+        if self.source == "estimate":
+            tag = " (est)"
+        elif self.source == "mixed":
+            tag = " (api+est)"
         return (
             f"tokens prompt={self.prompt_tokens} completion={self.completion_tokens} "
-            f"total={self.total_tokens}"
+            f"total={self.total_tokens}{tag}"
         )
 
 
+def chars_to_tokens(chars: int, *, chars_per_token: float = DEFAULT_CHARS_PER_TOKEN) -> int:
+    """Convert character count to a rough token estimate (ceiling, min 0)."""
+    if chars <= 0 or chars_per_token <= 0:
+        return 0
+    # Ceiling division without float drift for large values
+    return max(0, int((chars + chars_per_token - 1e-9) // chars_per_token))
+
+
+def estimate_tokens_from_chars(
+    chars: int,
+    *,
+    chars_per_token: float = DEFAULT_CHARS_PER_TOKEN,
+) -> int:
+    """Alias for :func:`chars_to_tokens` (public name for fallback counters)."""
+    return chars_to_tokens(chars, chars_per_token=chars_per_token)
+
+
 def _as_nonneg_int(value: object) -> int:
     if isinstance(value, bool):
         return 0
@@ -53,4 +93,48 @@ def token_usage_from_api(usage: object) -> TokenUsage | None:
         total = prompt + completion
     if prompt == 0 and completion == 0 and total == 0:
         return None
-    return TokenUsage(prompt_tokens=prompt, completion_tokens=completion, total_tokens=total)
+    return TokenUsage(
+        prompt_tokens=prompt,
+        completion_tokens=completion,
+        total_tokens=total,
+        source="api",
+    )
+
+
+def estimate_token_usage(
+    prompt_messages: Sequence[AnyChatMessage],
+    assistant: AssistantChatMessage | None = None,
+    *,
+    chars_per_token: float = DEFAULT_CHARS_PER_TOKEN,
+) -> TokenUsage:
+    """Char-based fallback when the provider does not report ``usage``."""
+    prompt_chars = estimate_messages_chars(prompt_messages)
+    completion_chars = 0
+    if assistant is not None:
+        completion_chars = estimate_message_chars(assistant)
+    prompt_tokens = chars_to_tokens(prompt_chars, chars_per_token=chars_per_token)
+    completion_tokens = chars_to_tokens(completion_chars, chars_per_token=chars_per_token)
+    return TokenUsage(
+        prompt_tokens=prompt_tokens,
+        completion_tokens=completion_tokens,
+        total_tokens=prompt_tokens + completion_tokens,
+        source="estimate",
+    )
+
+
+def resolve_round_usage(
+    api_usage: object,
+    prompt_messages: Sequence[AnyChatMessage],
+    assistant: AssistantChatMessage,
+    *,
+    chars_per_token: float = DEFAULT_CHARS_PER_TOKEN,
+) -> TokenUsage:
+    """Prefer API usage; otherwise estimate from message characters."""
+    parsed = token_usage_from_api(api_usage)
+    if parsed is not None:
+        return parsed
+    return estimate_token_usage(
+        prompt_messages,
+        assistant,
+        chars_per_token=chars_per_token,
+    )
diff --git a/tests/test_agent/test_usage.py b/tests/test_agent/test_usage.py
index 06dd42d..a1bb34f 100644
--- a/tests/test_agent/test_usage.py
+++ b/tests/test_agent/test_usage.py
@@ -2,17 +2,34 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 
 from msgspec import UNSET
 
-from plyngent.agent.usage import TokenUsage, token_usage_from_api
+from plyngent.agent.usage import (
+    TokenUsage,
+    chars_to_tokens,
+    estimate_token_usage,
+    resolve_round_usage,
+    token_usage_from_api,
+)
+from plyngent.lmproto.openai_compatible.model import (
+    AssistantChatMessage,
+    UserChatMessage,
+)
 
 
 def test_token_usage_add() -> None:
-    a = TokenUsage(prompt_tokens=10, completion_tokens=5, total_tokens=15)
-    b = TokenUsage(prompt_tokens=3, completion_tokens=2, total_tokens=5)
+    a = TokenUsage(prompt_tokens=10, completion_tokens=5, total_tokens=15, source="api")
+    b = TokenUsage(prompt_tokens=3, completion_tokens=2, total_tokens=5, source="api")
     c = a.add(b)
     assert c.prompt_tokens == 13
     assert c.completion_tokens == 7
     assert c.total_tokens == 20
-    assert a.prompt_tokens == 10  # immutable-ish via new struct
+    assert c.source == "api"
+    assert a.prompt_tokens == 10
+
+
+def test_token_usage_add_mixed_source() -> None:
+    a = TokenUsage(prompt_tokens=1, completion_tokens=0, total_tokens=1, source="api")
+    b = TokenUsage(prompt_tokens=2, completion_tokens=0, total_tokens=2, source="estimate")
+    assert a.add(b).source == "mixed"
 
 
 def test_token_usage_from_api() -> None:
@@ -24,6 +41,7 @@ def test_token_usage_from_api() -> None:
     assert u.prompt_tokens == 11
     assert u.completion_tokens == 4
     assert u.total_tokens == 15
+    assert u.source == "api"
 
 
 def test_token_usage_from_api_infers_total() -> None:
@@ -32,8 +50,50 @@ def test_token_usage_from_api_infers_total() -> None:
     assert u.total_tokens == 5
 
 
-def test_format_line() -> None:
-    line = TokenUsage(prompt_tokens=1, completion_tokens=2, total_tokens=3).format_line()
+def test_chars_to_tokens() -> None:
+    assert chars_to_tokens(0) == 0
+    assert chars_to_tokens(1) == 1
+    assert chars_to_tokens(4) == 1
+    assert chars_to_tokens(5) == 2
+    assert chars_to_tokens(8) == 2
+    assert chars_to_tokens(9) == 3
+
+
+def test_estimate_token_usage() -> None:
+    # 8 chars prompt → 2 tokens at 4 cpt; 4 chars completion → 1 token
+    usage = estimate_token_usage(
+        [UserChatMessage(content="12345678")],
+        AssistantChatMessage(content="abcd"),
+    )
+    assert usage.source == "estimate"
+    assert usage.prompt_tokens == 2
+    assert usage.completion_tokens == 1
+    assert usage.total_tokens == 3
+
+
+def test_resolve_round_usage_prefers_api() -> None:
+    usage = resolve_round_usage(
+        {"prompt_tokens": 100, "completion_tokens": 10, "total_tokens": 110},
+        [UserChatMessage(content="x")],
+        AssistantChatMessage(content="y"),
+    )
+    assert usage.source == "api"
+    assert usage.prompt_tokens == 100
+
+
+def test_resolve_round_usage_falls_back_to_estimate() -> None:
+    usage = resolve_round_usage(
+        None,
+        [UserChatMessage(content="12345678")],
+        AssistantChatMessage(content="abcd"),
+    )
+    assert usage.source == "estimate"
+    assert usage.total_tokens == 3
+
+
+def test_format_line_marks_estimate() -> None:
+    line = TokenUsage(prompt_tokens=1, completion_tokens=2, total_tokens=3, source="estimate").format_line()
     assert "prompt=1" in line
-    assert "completion=2" in line
-    assert "total=3" in line
+    assert "(est)" in line
+    mixed = TokenUsage(prompt_tokens=1, completion_tokens=0, total_tokens=1, source="mixed").format_line()
+    assert "(api+est)" in mixed